We thank Heather Murray for expert technical assistance; Dr. Graham Knott (Center for Interdisciplinary Electron Microscopy; EPFL) for help and advice with EM; Dr. Daniel Keller for help with flat surface rendering of active zone profiles; Dr. Patrick Charnay and Dr. Hans Jörg Fehling for the gift of mouse lines; and Dr. Olexiy Kochubey, Dr. Erwin Neher, and Dr. David Perkel for comments on the manuscript. This research was supported by grants from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF; 31003A_122496) Palbociclib solubility dmso and the Synapsis foundation (both to R.S.). “
“Neurotransmission

is initiated when synaptic vesicles undergo exocytosis at the active zone, thereby releasing their neurotransmitter contents (Katz, 1969). Synaptic vesicle exocytosis is highly regulated, consistent with its role as the gatekeeper of neurotransmission (Stevens, 2003). Each event of exocytosis is induced by an action potential that induces Ca2+ influx via Ca2+ channels located in or near the active zone. The efficacy of action-potential-induced exocytosis depends on at least three parameters: the local activity of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, the number of release-ready vesicles, and the Ca2+ sensitivity of these vesicles. Remarkably, none of the proteins that mediate these parameters (i.e., Ca2+ channels, the presynaptic

fusion machinery composed of SNARE and SM proteins, and the Ca2+ sensor synaptotagmin) is exclusively Metformin molecular weight localized to the active zone. Instead, their functions are organized at presynaptic release sites by the protein components of active zones (Südhof, 2004 and Wojcik and Brose, 2007). Among active

zone protein components, RIM proteins are arguably only the most central elements (Mittelstaedt et al., 2010). RIMs directly or indirectly interact with all other active zone proteins (Wang et al., 2000, Wang et al., 2002, Betz et al., 2001, Schoch et al., 2002, Ohtsuka et al., 2002 and Ko et al., 2003), Ca2+ channels (Hibino et al., 2002, Kiyonaka et al., 2007 and Kaeser et al., 2011), and the synaptic vesicle proteins Rab3 and synaptotagmin-1 (Wang et al., 1997, Coppola et al., 2001 and Schoch et al., 2002). Consistent with a central role for RIMs in active zones, RIM proteins are essential for presynaptic vesicle docking, priming, Ca2+ channel localization, and plasticity (Koushika et al., 2001, Schoch et al., 2002, Schoch et al., 2006, Castillo et al., 2002, Calakos et al., 2004, Weimer et al., 2006, Gracheva et al., 2008, Kaeser et al., 2008, Kaeser et al., 2011, Fourcaudot et al., 2008 and Han et al., 2011). However, apart from recent progress in understanding the role of RIMs in vesicle docking and in localizing Ca2+ channels to active zones (Gracheva et al., 2008, Schoch et al., 2006, Kaeser et al., 2008, Kaeser et al., 2011 and Han et al., 2011), it remains unclear how RIMs perform their functions.