Importantly, the NF1-mediated glia/neuronal fate switch is due to overactivation of MEK/ERK signaling, as it can be reversed by applying small molecule inhibitors of MEK/ERK function ( Wang et al., 2012). The low-grade astrocytomas seen in NF1 patients have a sporadic counterpart in children. Recent studies show that a large majority of pediatric low-grade astrocytomas have activating mutations in BRAF (see Figure 1) ( Jones et al., 2008; Pfister et al., 2008). Closer to home for the basic scientists, the observations of Li et al. (2012) present a useful new tool to the field of glial biology. Postnatal functions of astrocytes

have been difficult to resolve because BVD-523 datasheet it has been difficult to manipulate astrocyte number during development. Li et al. (2012) note that the NestinCre Mek null mice are acallosal at P0 in tandem with the absence of midline astroglia. Moreover, the hGFAPCre Mek null animals show a neurodegenerative phenotype by day P10. For the road ahead, the Mek ablation and Mek hyperactivation models described here may provide a means of changing neuron/glia ratios to display glial functions in neuronal activity. In the fullness of time, such manipulations might even shed

light on the role of glia in the cognitive aspects of NF1 syndrome and a variety of other hereditary “RASothapies” associated with mutations in core components of the signaling axis. “
“Our understanding check details of the neural mechanisms of value-based decision making has increased dramatically in the last decade. Much of this progress

has been achieved with the adoption of formal mathematical models that can be used to explain the process by which we compute values for stimuli in the world and use those values to guide our choices (Montague et al., 1996; Glimcher and Rustichini, 2004; Daw et al., 2005). By mapping components of these mathematical models to neural activity (a technique called computational fMRI; O’Doherty et al., 2007), it has been possible not only to determine whether a region is engaged under a condition of interest, but also to make inferences about the nature of the computations being implemented. More recently, efforts Levetiracetam have been made to expand the application of this method to choice problems with a social component (Hampton et al., 2008; Suzuki et al., 2012) These studies have reaffirmed the roles of key areas of prefrontal cortex such as dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), known previously to be engaged in tasks requiring social cognition (Amodio and Frith, 2006), and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), known to be involved in value-based choice (Hare et al., 2008). But, more importantly, such studies are beginning to yield insights into the specific components of the choice processes in which these areas are implicated. In a new study published in the current issue of Neuron, Nicolle et al.