These methods have revealed sparsely populated conformational states, termed ‘excited’ states, in

proteins have been identified that are critical for functions as diverse as enzymatic catalysis [7], MG-132 research buy [8] and [9], molecular recognition [10], quaternary dynamics [11], [12] and [13] and protein folding [14], [15], [16] and [17]. Extensive efforts over recent years has resulted in a number of individually tailored CPMG experiments and associated labelling schemes to measure not only isotropic chemical shifts of excited states [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23] and [24] but also structural features such as bond vector orientations [25], [26], [27] and [28]. These experiments together enable elucidation of structures of these hitherto unknown, but functionally important biomolecular conformational states [29], [30], [31] and [32]. In order to accurately extract meaningful parameters, CPMG data must be related to an appropriate theory. There are two commonly applied approaches to simulate the experimental data. The first relies on closed form solutions to the Bloch–McConnell equations [33] such as the www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD2281(Olaparib).html Carver Richards equation [6] (Fig. 1), a result found implemented in freely available software [34],

[35] and [36]. When the population of the minor state exceeds approximately 1% however, calculation errors that are significantly larger than the experimental uncertainty can accumulate when this result is used (Fig. 1), which can lead to errors in the extracted parameters. Further insight has come from results that have been derived in specific kinetic regimes [37], [38] and [42], revealing which mechanistic parameters can be reliably extracted

from data in these limits. In addition more recently, an algorithm that constitutes an exact solution has been described [37] derived in silico using the analysis software maple. As described in Supplementary Section 8, while exact, this algorithm can Dipeptidyl peptidase lead to errors when evaluated at double floating point precision, as used by software such as MATLAB. While the closed form results described above are relatively fast from a computational perspective, they are approximate. A second approach for data analysis involves numerically solving the Bloch–McConnell equations [15] and [28], where additional and relevant physics such as the non-ideal nature of pulses [39] and [40], scalar coupling and differential relaxation of different types of magnetisation are readily incorporated. While the effects of these additional physics can be negligible, their explicit inclusion is recommended, when accurate parameters are required for structure calculations [29], [30], [31] and [32]. Nevertheless, closed form solutions can provide greater insight into the physical principles behind experiments than numerical simulation.