22 As shown at the bottom of Figure I, anxiety is markedly increased when the more passive coping strategies are used, or when action is inhibited, even momentarily (in choice and/or conflict situations). However, if some kind of action can be undertaken, even under conditions of restricted choice, a blunting of the physiological, anxious response can be observed. If rats subjected to inescapable electric Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical shocks can start fighting with a partner, if rats tightly restrained (immobilization stress) can bite a piece of wood,24 or if rats exposed to a novel situation perform self -grooming (a displacement activity), all these actions decrease the impact of stress and associated anxiety.

Displaced aggression probably has a similar function.25 Anxiety disorders are characterized by the avoidance of situations that can lead to the arousal of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical fear and anxiety. Passive avoidance is part of some disorders; if it can be turned into an active coping strategy (at the ZD1839 solubility dmso cognitive and/or behavioral level), then things are much better off.26 Turning passive into more active coping strategies is indeed the basis of many cognitive-behavioral therapies, which are probably among the most effective Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical interventions regarding a number of anxiety disorders. The inhibition of ongoing behavior is one of the first behavioral symptoms of an anxious or fearful state. In the

1970s, Jeffrey Gray suggested that vulnerability Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to anxiety is associated with individual differences in the activity of a septo-hippocampal “behavioral inhibition system,” or BIS.27 Anxiety reflects

a central state mediated by BIS activation, which is elicited by threats of punishment or failure, and by novelty Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or uncertainty. The results of BIS activation are an inhibition of the ongoing behavior, increased arousal and attention to environmental stimuli, especially novel stimuli.28 A number of human studies, in both community samples and clinical groups, have indicated that anxiety symptoms generally show positive associations with BIS sensitivity.29 Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), which has been revised and adapted many times,30 may thus not only be a good framework for research on personality-psychopathology associations,29 but also for Tolmetin translational studies, because of its relevance for animal behavior and natural defence mechanisms. The central role of behavioral inhibition in generating an “anxious state” has also be pointed out by Laborit.31 For this author, anxiety is associated with the “alarm reaction,” as defined in Selye’s original description of the stress response (or general adaptation syndrome).32 Anxiety appears when one realizes that a proper adaptive action is not possible, ie, that there is loss of control over the situation, and it involves an activation of the HPA axis.