43 In the first study, patients in the early stages of recovery following TBI performed verbal time estimates for 10-to 60-second intervals.41 The findings revealed no difference between time estimation in TBI and control subjects for durations less than 30 seconds, whereas TBI patients significantly underestimated the longer durations. The authors suggested that episodic memory dysfunction may account for the poorer accuracy of the TBI participants at durations that exceeded the time frame of working memory, a result that has also been found in other patients with long-term memory deficits.30,34,37 #www.selleckchem.com/products/Rapamycin.html keyword# In the second study, the same verbal time estimation task was proposed in

the early phase of recovery from injury and 1 year later.42 The results revealed that in the early phase of injury, patients underestimated the durations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that exceed working memory, whereas at 12-month follow-up they exhibited normal time judgments despite a persistent episodic memory impairment. Moreover, in both phases of recovery, patients were not more variable than controls

in their estimations. Measures of attention, speed processing, and executive functioning in TBI patients were still below these of normal controls at 1 year post-injury, but no significant correlations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical were found between the neuropsychological tests and time estimation accuracy. The authors suggested that patients could have relearned to accurately estimate time units during recovery, which is compatible with the hypothesis we proposed to explain the accurate duration productions in the amnesic patient AC.30 Time estimation in patients with Parkinson’s disease Parkinson’s disease (PD) represents an excellent model to study

the effects of dopaminergic dysfunctions on temporal judgments. Our Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients performed like normal controls in the reproduction task, while they overproduced the short duration (5 s) and underproduced the long duration (38 s) in the production task: this temporal judgment Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical bias, known as “the migration effect,”20 was correlated with short-term memory scores. Thus, the influence of durations on each other would occur between the different trials within a session rather than between the representations of durations Dipeptidyl peptidase in long-term memory. We also used a finger- tapping task, which is assumed to be a direct measure of internal clock speed, and we found that PD patients who produced the longer durations were those with the slowest 1-second tempo. Therefore, we proposed that levodopa administration in PD patients would have counteracted the slower rate of the internal clock typically reported in nonmedicated patients, without restoring all of the memory functions. Several other recent studies have shown a similar migration effect in PD patients.25,44,45 Time estimation in psychiatric patients Patients with affective disorders have often been reported to exhibit impaired duration judgments.