Fluoroquinolone resistance selection decreased the toxicity of 13124R and increased the toxicity of NCTRR. Conclusions Our study demonstrates that gatifloxacin resistance selection in C. perfringens was EPZ004777 solubility dmso associated with upregulation or downregulation of different genes involved in various aspects of metabolism and that the effect was strain-specific. The genes involved in transcription regulation, virulence and cell toxicity were among those that were upregulated in one resistant strain and downregulated in another. Hiscox et al. [47] surmised that “the regulation of virulence in C. perfringens

was a complex process” and we found that the nature of each strain adds yet another level of complexity to gene regulation in C. perfringens. Myer et al. [52] found Serine/threonin kinase inhibitor widely Momelotinib manufacturer variable large genomic islands in a large collection of C. perfringens strains and stated that considerable variation exists among the genomes of C. perfringens strains. It appears that this variation in gene structure of different C. perfringens strains also affects gene regulation and interaction of bacteria with fluoroquinolones. Fluoroquinolones have been implied to have a role in the development of C. difficile associated diarrhea [53]. Since virulent, drug-resistant clinical isolates of pathogenic

bacteria have an undefined genetic basis for their resistance and virulence, we used two wild types and otherwise isogenic resistant mutants, which are difficult to obtain in a clinical setting, to assess fluoroquinolone effects. Our results reflect clinical observations of

finding fluoroquinolone-resistant strains of bacteria that are more or less virulent than the susceptible strains. They underscore the role of fluoroquinolones in changing bacterial virulence and the importance of prudent use of fluoroquinolones. Further study is needed on the effect of fluoroquinolones on a larger number of C. perfringens strains, along with genomic analysis of the resistant mutants. Acknowledgments We thank Drs. Mark Hart and John B. Sutherland for their helpful comments on the manuscript, Dr. Carl E. Cerniglia for support of research and Drs. Donald Schwartz and Jean-Marie Rouillard for DNA microarray experiments. S.P. was supported by the FDA Commissioner’s Fellowship Program. The views presented in this article Amylase do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Primers used for qRT-PCR. (PDF 23 KB) Additional file 2: Analysis of mRNA quality and expression. (PDF 81 KB) Additional file 3: Cytotoxicities of C. perfringens supernatants for macrophages. (PDF 31 KB) Additional file 4: Morphological examination of C. perfringens strains. (PDF 63 KB) References 1. Scallan E, Hoekstra RM, Angulo FJ, Tauxe RV, Widdowson MA, Roy SL: et al: Foodborne illness acquired in the United States—major pathogen s. Emerg Infect Dis 2011, 17:7–15.PubMed 2.