In most large spills, even with massive response efforts, the large proportion of oil remains within the environment and frequently response activities themselves leave a legacy of destruction [46] and [47]. In the Arctic, this is particularly problematic as oil is expected to degrade much slower than in more temperate environments such as the Gulf of Mexico [48]. Evidence of persistent oil in the beaches of Prince William Sound over two decades since the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill is testament to such long-term recovery horizons [49] and the potential for long-term impacts to shoreline habitats Dorsomorphin supplier [50]. The Bering Strait region is home to Chukchi, Iñupiaq, St. Lawrence Island,

Siberian Yupik, and Yup’ik communities. People have inhabited the area for millennia, and continue traditional cultural practices tied to the marine environment [14], [51], [52] and [53]. Local residents and their communities will be impacted both directly

and indirectly by vessel traffic in the Bering Strait region [3]. While these impacts may be both positive (e.g., port calls/deliveries) and negative (e.g., risks of oil spills, disturbance to animals and hunting), this paper focuses on the threats warranting management action in the near future. Direct threats include risk to life and property from vessel collisions, swamping, or the aftermath of an oil spill. Indirect threats include PI3K inhibitor impacts to humans via effects on marine mammal, seabird, and fish populations, as described in Section 3. In addition, there may be threats to cultural heritage, for example, through the degradation of archeological sites. Hunters from Bering Strait communities travel by small, open boat as far as 100 miles (160 km) or more from land [54] and [55]. Celecoxib These boats could be struck by a large vessel or swamped by a large vessel׳s wake, as has happened in the Torres Strait, Australia [56]. Given the cold water and distance from land and assistance in the Bering Strait region,

such incidents would likely be fatal to those on the small boat, if the large vessel were unaware of the accident. When on broken ice during hunting, processing catches, or while towing a whale to land, small boats and crews may be seriously constrained in their ability to respond to a large vessel׳s presence. Indigenous residents of the Bering Strait region obtain a large proportion of their food from the sea [14] and [57], along with other materials such as ivory for carving and skins for clothing and handicrafts. Successful hunting requires sufficient animals, access to those animals, and confidence that the meat and organs are safe to eat, all of which may be affected by increased vessel traffic and their emissions and discharges. Changes in the distribution of animals may affect access. For example, noise or other forms of disturbance from vessel traffic may cause marine mammals to shift their migratory path, which could force hunters to travel farther.