; Kubicka, Matejcek, Dytrych, & Roth, 2001; Munafo & Black, 2007; Munafo, Zetteler, & Clark, 2007; Terracciano & Costa, 2004; Vollrath & Torgersen, 2008; Welch & Poulton, 2009; Whiteman, Fowkes, Deary, & Lee, 1997). Likewise, tobacco dependence has been related to higher lifetime rates of major depression, conduct problems, and substance dependence (Breslau; towards Breslau et al., 1991; Dierker & Donny, 2008; Rohde et al., 2004a); to greater neuroticism (Breslau, Kilbey, & Andreski, 1993; Kawakami, Takai, Takatsuka, & Shimizu, 2000; Kendler et al.; McChargue, Cohen, & Cook, 2004; Spielberger & Jacobs, 1982); and to greater trait stress reaction, aggression, and alienation and lower traditionalism, harm avoidance, well-being, and social closeness (Welch & Poulton).

Although relationships of both psychiatric history and personality traits to smoking and smoking dependence have been demonstrated, the interrelationships among these variables have not been fully defined. Two primary methodological limitations account for a lack of clarity in this area. First, few studies have simultaneously assessed both personality and psychopathology and their unique and overlapping associations with smoking. Theory and empirical research suggest that there is substantial overlap between psychiatric disorders and personality traits (Krueger, 1999; Krueger, Caspi, Moffitt, Silva, & McGee, 1996). Thus, personality and psychopathology may show related patterns of association with smoking, but these hypotheses have not been examined in depth.

A second limitation is that, with a few notable exceptions (Gilbert, Sharpe, Ramanaiah, Detwiler, & Anderson, 2000), prior investigations have typically utilized a limited assessment of smoking dependence, relying on either a dichotomous diagnosis of dependence or a unidimensional continuous measure of dependence severity, such as the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND; Heatherton, Kozlowski, Frecker, & Fagerstrom, 1991). It may be profitable to assess not only ��primary�� aspects of dependence (e.g., tolerance, craving, or loss of control) that tend to correlate highly with dependence diagnosis and the FTND but also ��secondary�� aspects of dependence that reflect motivational factors that are distinct from, yet contribute to, dependence (Piper et al., 2008). These smoking dependence motives may show specific associations with individual differences in behavioral and affective functioning (Gilbert, 1995). For example, individuals high in neuroticism and those with elevated depressive symptoms are more likely to report smoking to alleviate negative Carfilzomib affect (Gilbert et al.; Joseph, Manafi, Iakovaki, & Cooper, 2003; Papakyriazi & Joseph, 1998).