Together, these data suggest that synapses evolved once and existed in the last common ancestor of ctenophores, cnidarians and bilaterians ( Figure 1a), which would imply homology of neurons. To track the assembly of synapses further, it will be rewarding to similarly follow the emergence of proteins known to structurally assemble the presynaptic active zone and regulate synaptic vesicle release, such as the PDZ domain proteins ERC and RIM that are missing in sponges [ 18] but conserved across bilaterians [ 13]. Regarding the evolution of neurotransmitter systems, a genomic inventory of receptors, channels and synthesizing enzymes in sea anemone has revealed that acetylcholine, GABA/glycine, neuropeptide

and hormone signalling likewise predates the last common ancestor of cnidarians and bilaterians [30]. Complementing this, a recent clustering GPCR & G Protein inhibitor Bleomycin analysis of neuropeptides and G-protein-coupled neuropeptide receptors shows that the emergence of the neuropeptide/GPCR signalling system predates the divergence of placozoans and identified a minimum of five neuropeptide/hormone signalling systems

that were active in cnidarian-bilaterian ancestor [31••, 32 and 33] (Figure 1a). Finally, pan-neuronal genes encoding RNA-binding proteins elav and Musashi, are present in sponges [18]. Binding to intronic sequences and 3′UTR sequences, elav proteins regulate alternative splicing and mRNA levels of neural genes [34]; interestingly, different human elav paralogs have recently been shown to regulate components of the glutamate synthesis pathway [34]. The various kinds of specialized muscle cell types in bilaterians are assumed to have evolved from contractile epithelial muscle cells [7 and 35]. Cells relating to such hypothetical muscle cell precursors, so-called myoepithelial cells, exist in extant cnidarians [36 and 37]. These cells have long

basal contractile processes that resemble muscle fibres [37]. On the basis of electron optics, smooth and striated muscle cell types can be distinguished; both types are present the in bilaterians and cnidarians [37 and 38] (Figure 1b). In ctenophores, most muscle cells lack the striation pattern (with the exception of the tentacle muscles in one species, Euplokamis) [ 39 and 40]. In an attempt to elucidate the evolution and interrelationship of smooth and striated muscle cell types in metazoans, Steinmetz and co-authors have recently mined genomic information from several early branching metazoans [14••]. They first establish that the core contractile module, the acto-myosin filament (comprising actin, myosin, tropomyosin and calmodulin), predates the metazoan radiation [14••] (Figure 1b); the first function of this module was in basic cell biological processes involving cytoskeletal remodeling [41]. Likewise, two duplicates of the myosin heavy chain that co-existed in unicellular ancestors, most likely conveyed different speeds of contraction [14••].