The objective of this research is to identify scenarios and locations that are particularly vulnerable to high-volume withdrawals of water and may require further evaluation should water permits be requested. A simulated range of development scenarios demonstrate how varying well pad density, water

source, and water volume might affect the groundwater–surface water systems in the Southern Tier of New York. The importance of this research lies in its application to all stakeholders in the HVHF controversy currently underway in New York. Not only will policy makers and regulators benefit from the predictive capacity of computer modeling, but industry, community members and interest groups can better understand how a water quantity perspective is valuable for sustainable energy development. Hydraulic fracturing is a Selleckchem Obeticholic Acid process that involves the injection of water into the subsurface in order to fracture tight geologic formations. Fracturing creates pathways through which trapped natural gas flows freely into a well and is subsequently harnessed for energy. The combination of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling has led to the growing viability of unconventional shale plays (U.S. Department of Energy, 2009). Horizontal drilling refers to the lateral drilling of a well bore through a target formation. This allows access to a greater volume of gas-bearing rock,

making such drilling ventures economically feasible (Soeder, 2010). In HVHF, large volumes of water in addition to proppants and other additives serve as the fracturing Lapatinib mouse fluid. The fluid injection and fracturing process progresses in stages along the horizontal extent of the well, with each horizontal Verteporfin in vitro well requiring between 1 and 5 million gallons of water (Gregory et al., 2011). Only a fraction of injected fluid actually returns to the surface – referred to as flowback – with the unreturned volume remaining in the subsurface. This fraction can vary greatly

between wells, company, and target formation with an estimated average of 10–40% flowback (Maloney and Yoxtheimer, 2012, NYSDEC, 2011 and Rassenfoss, 2011). In arid climates, where freshwater supply is limited, the quantity of water use associated with HVHF is of concern (Nicot and Scanlon, 2012). In humid climates, where freshwater supply is less emphasized in water resource management, increased water demand associated with HVHF is only beginning to receive recognition (Rahm and Riha, 2012). This is in part due to mass balance or water budget approaches in quantifying the impacts of HVHF water demands. Nicot and Scanlon (2012) estimate water use associated with HVHF is less than 1% of water use in Texas, but may account for larger fractions of water use at the county scale. For example, within the Barnett Shale play in Texas, the 2008 fraction of shale gas water use in the counties of Denton, Johnson, Parker, Tarrant, and Wise was 2.8%, 29%, 10%, 1.4%, and 19%, respectively (Nicot and Scanlon, 2012).

05) than the corresponding IDO inhibitor values obtained without p-BPB). We have recently shown that B. b. smargadina venom produces potent neuromuscular blockade in avian (concentration range: 0.1–30 μg/ml) and mammalian (concentration range: 1–30 μg/ml) nerve–muscle preparations in vitro ( Rodrigues-Simioni et al., 2011). In mammalian preparations, the highest venom concentration

caused marked facilitation of the twitch-tension amplitude and increased the quantal content before the onset of progressive blockade, without altering the resting membrane potential; in avian preparations, the contractile responses to exogenous ACh and KCl were not significantly altered. These findings suggested a presynaptic action in both neuromuscular preparations that was attributed to the PLA2 activity of the venom. We have previously described the biochemical characterization and some biological activities of Bbil-TX, a basic PLA2 isolated from B. b. smargadina

venom, that induces muscle damage in mice (leading to CK release) and is pro-inflammatory, causing edema and stimulating the formation of TNFα, interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 ( Carregari et al., in press). As shown here, Bbil-TX also causes neuromuscular blockade in vertebrate nerve–muscle preparations. Indeed, Bbil-TX reproduced the major effects of the venom, i.e., time- and concentration-dependent neuromuscular blockade, with avian preparations being more sensitive than mammalian Selleck PD0332991 preparations (0.5–10 μg/ml vs. 3–30 μg/ml; complete blockade with 10 μg/ml after 40 min in the former while 30 μg/ml caused only 52% blockade after 120 min in the latter). The Bbil-TX-induced blockade involved primarily a presynaptic action, the evidence for which included: (1) a lack of interference with postsynaptic nicotinic receptor function as indicated by unaltered responses to exogenous ACh and CCh, (2) a progressive decrease in the quantal content and MEPP frequency 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase in diaphragm muscle during incubation with Bbil-TX [such a decrease is characteristic of classic presynaptic toxins such as β-bungarotoxin

(Oberg and Kelly, 1976) and crotoxin (Hawgood and Smith, 1989; Rodrigues-Simioni et al., 1990)], (3) an unaltered resting membrane potential (in diaphragm muscle) and unaltered (normal) twitch-tension response in directly stimulated BC and PND preparations preincubated with d-Tc, and (4) an unaltered response to exogenous (KCl), indicating skeletal muscle intactness that was corroborated by a lack of change in the baseline of twitch-tension responses. The contribution of muscle damage to the neuromuscular blockade caused by presynaptically-active Bothrops PLA2 is an aspect that has not been systematically investigated and is likely to vary considerably among these toxins in view of their differing abilities to damage muscle fibers ( Gallacci and Cavalcante, 2010; Correia-de-Sá et al., 2013).

Diminished DG volume has implications for learning and memory during development. Just as importantly, the DG is one of the few brain regions in which neurogenesis occurs throughout adulthood (Ming and Song, 2005). Thus, delay of development in DG volume, and/or loss of DG volume during Gefitinib molecular weight development, would be expected to impact the acquisition of early neurocognitive functions, while also impairing brain resilience in later life. Further studies are needed to examine effects on the aging brain of early chronic exposure to Pb. The findings suggested neuroimmune system disruption, but not chronic neuroinflammation and heightened microglial activation. Furthermore, microglial mean cell body volume differences

in animals with lowest vs. higher Pb chronic exposure suggested qualitatively different types of neuroimmune disruption in these groups. Further studies of cytokine levels, find more in combination with cytokine gene expression, could be useful for confirming these findings. Studies are needed to examine the independent effects on microglia of local Pb concentrations and increased δ-ALA, at lowest and higher chronic and acute doses, and using additional microglial activation markers such as CD45, CD68, and F4/80. Investigating concentrations of Pb in brain and increased brain δ-ALA as distinct neurotoxic triggers may help differentiate their roles in effect pathways. It is also important to examine the

effects of early chronic lowest and higher levels of Pb concentrations on progenitor cells. We selected DG as the target structure in these studies because of its critical role in learning and memory, and its role in neurogenesis during adulthood. Additional studies are needed to test for evidence of neuroimmune disruption in other brain regions implicated by results from the child and animal lead exposure literature, including for example, caudate putamen and substantia nigra. Mice chronically exposed to Pb from birth

to PND 28, with blood Pb levels from 2.48 to 20.31 μg/dL, had dose-dependent reduction of IL6 gene expression in posterior and anterior brain, significantly less IL6 in posterior brain, dose-dependent reduction in DG microglia mean cell body number, and reduced DG volume. Chronic Pb exposure Thiamine-diphosphate kinase promoted microglia with broad variability in mean cell body volume, only in animals with blood levels between 2.48 μg/dL and 4.65 μg/dL, and with no increases in inflammatory markers. The findings lend initial support for neuroimmune system disruption, but not neuroinflammation, as one source of abnormal brain development with chronic developmental exposure to Pb. The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest. The authors would like to acknowledge Mari Golub, Environmental Toxicology, UC Davis, for her assistance in the preparation of the final manuscript. The authors would also like to acknowledge Benjamin Valencia for his assistance in the completion of the animal procedures.

Previous studies have also found a lower stent migration rate with MPS compared with a single PS and covered SEMS. 26 and 50 Current evidence of BD + MPS in the management of ABSs after LDLT is limited. ABSs after LDLT had predominantly been managed by reoperation or retransplantation in the past because many cases involved Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy and/or multiple anastomoses. Not only are ABSs more common

after LDLT, but also are less likely to respond to BD and stenting than in OLT patients.21, 22, 23 and 51 Most case series used BD only or BD followed by insertion of a single PS, with lower stricture resolution rates compared with ABSs in OLT patients.2 and 52 The index ERCP failed in many patients, and this website percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and/or a rendezvous approach to traverse these strictures were required. This may reflect the fact that the donor bile ducts and strictures in the LDLT setting are smaller, anatomically more challenging, and sometimes GPCR Compound Library order multiple compared with those seen after OLT. Furthermore, the risks of cholangitis and stent occlusion were found to be substantially higher after LDLT

than after OLT in this review. Therefore, it is difficult to apply the same endoscopic strategy to ABSs in both OLT and LDLT settings and expect similar outcomes. Covered SEMSs, either as primary or secondary therapy, achieved stricture resolution rates very similar to those seen with MPSs. However, this conclusion is limited by the heterogeneity of different types of the SEMSs used in these studies because it is inappropriate

to assume that all SEMSs are equivalent. Furthermore, SEMSs were used as “rescue” therapy in 5 of the 10 studies, introducing a potential selection bias for more difficult strictures. One could speculate Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II that SEMSs would have performed more poorly without previous PSs in these difficult strictures. For instance, the prospective study by Tarantino et al38 reported that the stricture resolution rate was much higher in late ABS after a trial of PS placement for a year, compared with those without previous stenting (72% vs 53%), although the SEMS duration was only 2 months. SEMS duration of at least 3 months appeared to result in higher stricture resolution rates. One significant problem with covered SEMSs is a much higher stent migration rate than for MPSs. Given the small number of patients in these studies, however, it was not clear whether fully covered SEMSs or longer stent durations were predictors of higher stent migration rates. Other studies found a higher stent migration rate with fully covered SEMSs (17%) compared with partially covered SEMSs (7%).26 and 53 Two studies, in fact, used novel covered SEMSs, with features such as double flared ends and a proximal lasso (Hanaro; M.I.

In contrast, fenofibrate slightly increased ALAT (22 IU/L, P = 0.043). For 5 out of the 20 subjects values were above the normal range (Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands). Fenofibrate also increased ASAT (13 IU/L, P = 0.016L) and decreased ALP concentrations compared to placebo (−8 IU/L, P = 0.019). Creatinine concentrations were selleck products higher after fenofibrate treatment compared to placebo (9.8 μmol/L, P < 0.001) and fish oil treatment (9.4 μmol/L, P < 0.001). Although γ-GT did not change significantly (P = 0.979),

it slightly exceeded the normal range upon fenofibrate treatment compared to placebo for 4 out of 20 subjects. Overweight and obese subjects are often characterized by a disturbed lipid and lipoprotein profile, low-grade

systemic inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction. A way to improve these metabolic aberrations is by targeting PPARα. We hypothesized that a dietary intervention with n-3 LCPUFAs, as non-selective PPARα agonists, could be an alternative for a strong medicinal agonist. Therefore, we directly compared the effects of these n-3 LCPUFAs with those of fenofibrate on a broad range of biomarkers for cardiovascular disease. However, we found that fenofibrate (200 mg/d) and n-3 LCPUFA (3.7 g/d) treatment for 6 weeks did not improve markers for low-grade systemic inflammation and that fenofibrate had more profound effects on plasma see more lipids and vascular activity compared to fish oil in overweight and obese individuals. Studies on fenofibrate have shown inconsistent results regarding effects on low-grade inflammation and vascular activity [10], [11] and [12]. We found that fenofibrate reduced sE-selectin concentration compared to placebo and fish oil treatment in overweight and Gemcitabine order obese subjects. This finding corresponds to that of Hogue et al., who found in type 2 diabetic patients, that micronized fenofibrate

(200 mg/d) for 6 weeks reduced plasma sE-selectin, but did not affect concentrations of hsCRP, sICAM1 and sVCAM1 [11]. In contrast, Ryan et al. showed in an obese population, that fenofibrate reduced sVCAM1, sICAM1, TNFα, IL6, IL1β, but did not affect sE-selectin concentrations [12]. The reduced sE-selectin concentration as we observed suggests beneficial effects of fenofibrate on vascular activity, since E-selectin is involved in the adherence of leukocytes in the process of atherosclerosis [13]. However, this seems to contradict the observed increase in MCP1 concentrations after fenofibrate treatment compared to placebo, since this chemokine is responsible for attracting monocytes to the injured endothelium [13]. For fish oil, human intervention studies using doses ranging between 1.1 and 6.6 g/d n-3 LCPUFAs are inconsistent and do not often report beneficial effects on inflammatory markers and cellular adhesion molecules [14], [15], [16], [17] and [18].

In Ländern, die eine wirksame Arbeitsplatzkontrolle und Risikoeindämmung vorschreiben, sind derartige Expositionen inzwischen selten. Jedoch hat die westliche Welt risikobelastete Industriezweige in Länder verlagert, deren Wirtschaft weniger entwickelt ist und in denen weniger strikte Auflagen für die

Industrie gelten. In diesen Ländern stellen Verfahren, bei denen es zur Freisetzung von Quecksilber kommen kann, weiterhin ein Problem für Mensch um Umwelt dar. Über die Verwendung in Dentalamalgam (siehe unten) hinaus ist Quecksilber in großem Umfang in Laborinstrumenten verwendet worden, die in den letzten Jahrzehnten jedoch durch andere Technologien ersetzt worden sind. So ist zwar die Verwendung von elementarem Quecksilber insgesamt reduziert worden, jedoch stellt sie mancherorts immer noch ein erhebliches Umweltproblem dar, wie z. B. selleck products in einigen Goldabbau gebieten Brasiliens und der Philippinen. Elementares Quecksilber aus der Luft wird über die Lungen leicht aufgenommen und 74% werden im menschlichen Körper

zurückgehalten [3]. Mit dem Blut verteilt sich das elementare Quecksilber im gesamten Körper, da es die meisten Zellmembranen sowie die Blut-Hirn-Schranke und die Plazenta leicht passiert. Im Blut wird das elementare Quecksilber zu Quecksilber(II) oxidiert, z. T. unter Beteiligung der Katalase [4], und dies beeinflusst wiederum die Aufnahme von Quecksilber ins Gehirn [5]. Die Oxidation kann durch Alkohol inhibiert werden [6]. Daher Epigenetics inhibitor spiegelt die Verteilung des als Quecksilberdampf inhalierten Quecksilbers im Verlauf längerer Zeiträume sowohl die Diffusion der elementaren

Form als auch die des oxidierten Quecksilbers wider. Es ist gezeigt worden, dass die Aufnahme von elementarem Quecksilber ins Gehirn abnimmt, wenn die Aktivität der Katalase im Gehirn inhibiert wird [7]. Die Aufnahme von Wilson disease protein elementarem Quecksilber ins Gehirngewebe hängt darüber hinaus stark von der Konzentration an Glutathion (GSH) im Gehirn ab. So führt eine Reduktion der GSH-Konzentration im Gehirn um 20% zu einem 66%igen Anstieg des Quecksilbergehalts des Gehirns [8]. Akute inhalative Exposition gegenüber Quecksilber in hoher Konzentration kann Atembeschwerden, einschließlich Dyspnoe, hervorrufen. Chronische Exposition kann vom Zentralnervensystem (ZNS) herrührende Symptome auslösen, wie z. B. Zittern, Wahnvorstellungen, Gedächtnisverlust und neurokognitive Störungen. Viele der mit einer leichten Vergiftung einhergehenden Anzeichen und Symptome klingen nach dem Ende der Exposition wieder ab. Eine starke Exposition kann jedoch zu bleibender Beeinträchtigung der Gehirnfunktion führen. Darüber hinaus kann eine langfristige Exposition auch Auswirkungen auf die Nieren haben. Clarkson und Magos [2] haben hierzu einen umfassenden Übersichtsartikel vorgelegt.

It was also noted that find protocol there were variations across the guidelines in the recommendations made. Currently, there

is no critical appraisal of international guidelines that has synthesized, graded, and comprehensively presented all the relevant recommendations for the physical management of OA. Therefore, a systematic critical appraisal of international OA guidelines was undertaken to comprehensively present all the relevant evidence-based recommendations on the physical management of OA. A systematic literature search was performed. The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus with Full Text, Scopus, ScienceDirect, PEDro, and Google Scholar databases were searched (2000–2013) to identify all guidelines, protocols, and recommendations for the management or treatment of OA. An experienced health science librarian assisted with the development of the search strategy. MEDLINE, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus with Full Text databases were searched using key word proximity searches to identify guidelines or recommendations for the management of OA ([osteoarthrit* N5 guideline*] OR [osteoarthrit* N5 evidence*] OR [osteoarthrit* N5 recommend] OR [osteoarthrit* N5 best*]). Scopus and Protease Inhibitor Library purchase ScienceDirect databases used the same proximity search logic but with the appropriate syntax. PEDro and The Cochrane Libraries were searched

using ([osteoarthriti* and guideline] AND [osteoarthriti* and protocol]). A manual search was conducted on reference lists found in relevant guidelines, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis (MA), which returned additional resources. A thorough Internet search was conducted to identify international arthritis organizations and guideline clearinghouses. The names of organizations were also found during the process of reviewing guidelines and recommendations identified during the electronic database

searches. The websites of these organizations were reviewed, and any relevant guidelines were included. A list of these organizations is given in appendix 1. The primary source of literature O-methylated flavonoid for this review was recommended guidelines developed from evidence-based research, consensus, and/or expert opinion. Guidelines that included only pharmacological therapy, injection therapy, or surgical interventions were excluded. There were no restrictions on severity or site of OA, sex, or age. The search was confined to articles published in English and available electronically between the period of 2000 and end of April 2013. Animal-based studies were not included. If there had been updates to guidelines, only the latest version of the guideline was reviewed. All titles and/or abstracts were reviewed to determine whether they met the eligibility criteria of this critical appraisal. When citations met the criteria, the full-text articles were retrieved and reviewed. Nineteen guidelines were identified for evaluation.

927, .462; standardised coefficients: 1.229, .519 for intensity and location respectively). Separate follow-up univariate ANOVAs on accuracy of intensity

and location judgement, confirmed that this effect was driven by differences in judgements of intensity [F(2, 32) = 4.75, p = .016, Δη2 = .229], not location [F(2,32) = .215, p = .808, Δη2 = .013]. Post-hoc protected comparisons using Fisher’s least significant differences test (LSD) were then used to identify significant differences in intensity judgements between TMS conditions. These showed that participants made greater errors in the intensity discrimination task when TMS was applied over S2 VE 821 (mean 67.8%, SD = 9.1) compared to vertex (mean 74.0%, SD = 8.1; p = .032) and also when TMS was applied over S2 relative to S1

(mean 75.0%, SD = 8.9; p = .004). In contrast, S1 and vertex TMS conditions did not differ (p = .727) (see Fig. 3). Thus, single-pulse TMS over S2 disrupts perception of pain intensity. TSA HDAC TMS might either alter response sensitivity (i.e., loss of information about whether the stimulus was strong or weak) or response bias (i.e., all stimuli perceived as higher or lower intensity). To distinguish between these possibilities, we also analysed our data using signal-detection theory (Green and Swets, 1966). We arbitrarily defined ‘High’ intensity and ‘Distal’ location as the to-be-detected signals. We computed measures of stimulus sensitivity (dprime) and response bias (criterion) for each participant

in each condition. Dprime scores indicate the sensitivity of the participant to the actual intensity or location of the stimulus, while response bias indicates the tendency to respond ‘High’ or ‘Distal’, irrespective of actual intensity/location. The dprime and criterion values for intensity and location judgements were analysed as four dependent variables using MANOVA, as before. The MANOVA again revealed a significant, but now stronger, overall PD184352 (CI-1040) effect of TMS on pain processing [Wilks' Lambda = .530 F(8, 58) = 2.71, p = .013, Δη2 = .272]. The canonical structure (.629, .222, .081, .451 for Intensity dprime, Intensity criterion, Location dprime, Location criterion respectively) suggested that TMS primarily affected sensitivity of intensity perception. Follow-up univariate ANOVA confirmed that effects of TMS were confined to sensitivity of intensity judgements [F(2, 32) = 4.09, p = .026, Δη2 = .204]. There was no significant effect of TMS site when analysing biases in intensity [F(2, 32) = 2.30, p = .117, Δη2 = .126], sensitivity to location [F(2, 32) = .025, p = .975, Δη2 = .002] nor biases in location [F(2, 32) = 2.14, p = .134, Δη2 = .118]. The significant univariate ANOVA on sensitivity in intensity judgement was followed up using Fisher’s LSD. S2 TMS reduced stimulus sensitivity (mean dprime = 1.15, SD = .59) relative to vertex control (mean dprime = 1.57; SD = .52; p = .021) and relative to S1 (mean dprime = 1.56, SD = .59; p = .

For adequate assessment of CT or MRI scans digital data (DICOM), which provide better quality and allows post processing of the images, should be obtained. In community hospitals and even more important in stroke centres large monitors with a high resolution are needed [21]. After every single teleconsultation a written report should be sent to the remote hospital and be preserved just like the standards for in-patient documents. To date more than 6000 Venetoclax nmr patients suffering from stroke have been treated in the 15 hospitals of the TEMPiS-network every year. Meanwhile the TEMPiS has emerged from a scientific stroke

research project to regular patient care, and the health insurances cover the costs by reimbursing the remote hospitals, which in turn finance the costs of the consulting stroke centres. Since 2003, more than 25,000 teleconsultations have been performed and more than 2200 patients received thrombolysis. In Germany

today the percentage of acute stroke patients receiving rtPA is about 10 percent (www.dsg-info.de), whereas in the TEMPiS network it is 13.8%. In addition, the TEMPiS-network not only provides telemedical advice. The ongoing stroke education, provided to the network hospitals due to on-site visits with ward rounds, standardised clinical procedures, actualised every year and updates, performed twice a year in order to update selleck knowledge concerning new therapeutic options. The network also provides training courses for

young clinicians in network hospitals regarding acute stroke therapy. Hereby face-to-face contact is facilitated, which lowers the barriers to requests for a teleconsultation and transports stroke knowledge in both directions. Quality assurance is given by follow-up presentations in critical patients. But not only rtPA treatment in acute stroke is improved in rural areas. As there are new options www.selleck.co.jp/products/BafilomycinA1.html in acute stroke therapy like neuroradiological interventions as thrombectomy and treatment of complications like hemicraniectomy in malignant infarctions, therapies just available in specialised stroke centres, patients in rural areas can profit from telemedic networks as well. Due to the videoconference and assessment of CT and MRI images patients requiring more than standard stroke care can be identified and transferred to stroke centres with the opportunity to provide these therapeutic options. In summary, only a minority of stroke patients all over Europe receive thrombolytic and specialised stroke unit therapy. Due to telemedic approaches like the TEMPiS-network, patients, especially in rural areas can now receive highly specialized stroke treatment. Therefore a high quality of the technical equipment is needed and beside the teleconsultations a continuous training should be performed to achieve high quality. “
“Ultrasound fusion is an emerging technique in the field of abdominal imaging with translation possibilities to neuroradiology.

These methods have revealed sparsely populated conformational states, termed ‘excited’ states, in

proteins have been identified that are critical for functions as diverse as enzymatic catalysis [7], MG-132 research buy [8] and [9], molecular recognition [10], quaternary dynamics [11], [12] and [13] and protein folding [14], [15], [16] and [17]. Extensive efforts over recent years has resulted in a number of individually tailored CPMG experiments and associated labelling schemes to measure not only isotropic chemical shifts of excited states [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23] and [24] but also structural features such as bond vector orientations [25], [26], [27] and [28]. These experiments together enable elucidation of structures of these hitherto unknown, but functionally important biomolecular conformational states [29], [30], [31] and [32]. In order to accurately extract meaningful parameters, CPMG data must be related to an appropriate theory. There are two commonly applied approaches to simulate the experimental data. The first relies on closed form solutions to the Bloch–McConnell equations [33] such as the www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD2281(Olaparib).html Carver Richards equation [6] (Fig. 1), a result found implemented in freely available software [34],

[35] and [36]. When the population of the minor state exceeds approximately 1% however, calculation errors that are significantly larger than the experimental uncertainty can accumulate when this result is used (Fig. 1), which can lead to errors in the extracted parameters. Further insight has come from results that have been derived in specific kinetic regimes [37], [38] and [42], revealing which mechanistic parameters can be reliably extracted

from data in these limits. In addition more recently, an algorithm that constitutes an exact solution has been described [37] derived in silico using the analysis software maple. As described in Supplementary Section 8, while exact, this algorithm can Dipeptidyl peptidase lead to errors when evaluated at double floating point precision, as used by software such as MATLAB. While the closed form results described above are relatively fast from a computational perspective, they are approximate. A second approach for data analysis involves numerically solving the Bloch–McConnell equations [15] and [28], where additional and relevant physics such as the non-ideal nature of pulses [39] and [40], scalar coupling and differential relaxation of different types of magnetisation are readily incorporated. While the effects of these additional physics can be negligible, their explicit inclusion is recommended, when accurate parameters are required for structure calculations [29], [30], [31] and [32]. Nevertheless, closed form solutions can provide greater insight into the physical principles behind experiments than numerical simulation.