MxpSS2 encodes a protein with two amino acid differences from EβF synthase identified in a different black peppermint variety ‘Black Mitcham’ (GenBank accession number IDO inhibitor AF024615). One of the amino acid differences (leucine in MxpSS2 and serine in EβF synthase) at position 531 led to loss of EβF synthase activity in the MxpSS2 chemotype [17] and [40] possibly due to the L531 residue that lies in a J–K loop clamping down over the entrance to the active site [41]. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effective

and functional EβF synthase genes from a variety of plant varieties/species before their use in engineering other crop plants for aphid control. In the present study, two EβF synthase genes, designated as MaβFS1 and MaβFS2, were isolated from Asian peppermint. The tissue expression pattern of MaβFS1 was characterized. MaβFS1 transgenic tobacco plants were generated and molecularly characterized. EβF emission levels and aphid bioassays of transgenic tobacco plants were also investigated. Asian peppermint seedlings were purchased from Beijing Botanic Garden, Beijing, and planted in soil in a greenhouse at 20 ± 5 °C under 400 W HPS mercury vapor lamps. Roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the flowering Asian peppermint were excised, frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at − 80 °C. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L., cv. W38) seedlings grown on standard MS medium were used for transformation.

Commercial EβF was purchased from Tokyo Kasei Chemicals, Tokyo, Japan. Leaves of Asian peppermint plants were used to extract total RNA and genomic DNA (gDNA) using the RNAprep Pure Plant Kit and Plant Genomic selleck chemicals llc DNA Kit (Tiangen Biotech, Beijing, China) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For RT-PCR, first strand cDNA synthesis was initiated with 2 μg of total RNA using 500 ng of random hexamers and M-MLV Reverse Transcriptase Dolutegravir (TaKaRa, Dalian, China). PCR amplifications were done using the synthesized cDNA or gDNA as template. The specific primers were MaβFS F1 and MaβFS R1 (listed in Table 1), where ATG and TTA are the start and stop codons of the published

EβF synthase cDNA (GenBank accession no. AF024615). Reactions of 50 μL containing cDNA (50 ng) or gDNA (100 ng), dNTPs (0.2 mmol L− 1 of each), primers (0.2 μmol L− 1 of each), PrimeSTAR HS DNA Polymerase (1.25 U) and buffer were supplied with the polymerase (TaKaRa, Dalian). Reactions were conducted according to the following program: 98 °C for 15 s; 52 °C for 10 s and 72 °C for 2 min, 40 cycles, followed by maintenance at 72 °C for 10 min. The products obtained were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis (alongside DL2000 DNA marker or 250 bp DNA ladder marker to check the fragment size and approximate amounts) and then purified from the gel using a Tiangen Mini Purification Kit (Tiangen Biotech, Beijing). The purified PCR fragment was cloned into pEASY-Blunt vector (Tiangen Biotech, Beijing) and transformed into competent Escherichia coli DH5α cells.

The present data provide valuable information in order to clarify the relevance of kinin Osimertinib chemical structure receptors in regulating vascular physiology and may point to new approaches regarding its correlation with endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and NO availability. Supported by grants from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP 2007/59039-2, 2008/06676-8), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). “
“The importance of physical exercise for the control

of hypertension is well documented and is the subject of guidelines from the American College of Sports Medicine [32]. A reduction in blood pressure buy ATM Kinase Inhibitor in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) has been found after chronic physical training by swimming [25] and [40] or running [19], [45] and [46]. The mechanisms involved in the reduction of blood pressure (BP) could be dependent on the type of exercise training.

There is evidence that the acute and chronic hemodynamic responses to swimming are different from the responses to running [1], [9] and [43]. Studies have shown that water immersion causes an immediate translocation of blood from the dependent limbs and an increase in the intrathoracic blood volume that augments the cardiac output via increased end-diastolic and stroke volume due to the effect of increased cardiac muscle length on the contractile force of the cardiac

muscle. The stretching of the atrium also results in a compensatory ANP secretion [30]. Thus, the reduction of blood pressure that is induced by exercise training could be involved in different neural or hormonal adaptations. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a hormone that promotes acute vasodilatation, natriuresis and diuresis next with a consequent reduction in blood pressure [34]. Normotensive rats that received a prolonged infusion of ANP, resulting in increased plasma levels of this hormone, showed sustained hypotension [14]. Additionally, ANP knockout mice or natriuretic peptide receptor A (NPR-A) knockout mice have increased peripheral vascular resistance, hypertension and ventricular hypertrophy [22] and [28]. Moreover, elevated levels of ANP in hypertensive individuals could partially compensate for the high levels of vasoconstrictor hormones originating primarily from the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system [41]. It is known that under physiological conditions, the primary stimulus for the secretion of ANP is the distension of the atrial chamber [7]. Among the factors that stimulate ANP secretion are increased concentrations of endothelin and vasopressin, tilting of the head downward [34] and immersion in water [26] and [39]. It has been shown that training by swimming increased the expression of ANP in the ventricles [8].

However, human studies can be influenced by training motivation, food intake, and lifestyle. Our animal model ensures that experimental results are not biased by unintended environmental factors. Male Wistar rats (80 days old, 250-300 g) were obtained from the Multidisciplinary Center for Biological Investigation (CEMIB, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil). The rats were housed in collective polypropylene cages (4 animals per cage) covered with metallic grids in a temperature-controlled room (22°C-24°C) under a 12-hour light-dark cycle and provided with unlimited access to standard rat chow (14.644 kJ/g at 26% protein, 3% lipid, 54% carbohydrate,

and 17% others; ISRIB nmr Labina; Purina, Paulínia, SP, Brazil) and water. This standard diet follows the recommendations of Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals [23] and ensures both the welfare of animals and the reliability of experimental

Decitabine supplier results. We used the independent variables, Cr and training, to examine the effects of both, isolated and combined, on the skeletal muscle fiber CSA. For this purpose, rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: nontrained without Cr supplementation (CO; n = 8), nontrained with Cr supplementation (CR; n = 8), trained without Cr supplementation (TR; n = 8), and trained with Cr supplementation (TRCR; n = 8). This experiment was approved by the Biosciences Institute Ethics Committee, UNESP, Botucatu, SP, in Brazil (protocol no. 017/06-CEEA) and was conducted in compliance with the policy statement of the American College of Sports Medicine on research with experimental animals. Creatine and TRCR groups were supplemented daily, via gavage, with a solution of 2% (0.2 g per 10 mL of water) Cr monohydrate (C-3630; Sigma, St Louis, MO). The CO and TR groups received only the same volume of water. Creatine supplementation began 5 days before initiation of the training protocol and was kept up until the

end of the experiment. Creatine intake per animal was 0.5 g/kg per day [24], which exceeds the amount necessary to elevate the muscle Cr levels in humans. check The TR and TRCR groups were submitted to a high-intensity resistance training program for 5 weeks (5 d/wk), similar to that described by Cunha et al [25]. Before the initial training program, animals performed a 1-week pretraining (once a day) to familiarize them with the water and exercise. In this phase, the rats were submitted to individual sessions of jumping into a 38-cm deep vat of water at 28°C to 32°C (Fig. 1). Animals jumped to the water surface to breathe, without needing any direct stimulus to complete the jumping sessions. The depth allowed each animal to breathe on the surface of the water during successive jumps. Repeated jumps were counted when the animals reached the water surface and returned to the bottom of the vat.

Professor Leroux-Roels’ fascination with viruses and immunity has led to a growing interest and involvement in clinical vaccine evaluation. In the past two decades, more than 100 novel and improved vaccines and a series of

innovating adjuvant systems have been clinically evaluated at the Center for Vaccinology. He is the author or co-author of numerous articles published in international peer-reviewed journals, including The Lancet, Hepatology and Vaccine. Figure options Download full-size image Download as PowerPoint slide José Ignacio Santos, MD, MSc: José Ignacio Santos is Professor and Head of the Infectious Diseases Unit at the Department of Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico. Professor Santos completed his medical and paediatric training at Stanford University, USA, and clinical immunology and infectious diseases training selleck chemical at the University of Utah, USA. Prior to his current appointment, Professor Santos was General Director at the Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez (2004–2009). From 1997–2004 he was Director of Mexico’s National Infant and Adolescent Health Program and Immunization Program as well as Mexico’s liaison member of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices selleck compound of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Professor Santos’ research and public

health interests have focused on paediatric infectious diseases and the evaluation and introduction of new vaccines. He works with several international health agencies including the International Center for Diarrheal Research (ICDDRB); the Measles Working Group of the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE, the principal advisory group to the World Health Thalidomide Organization [WHO] for vaccines and immunisation); the Pediatric Dengue Vaccine Initiative (PDVI), and the Data and Safety Monitoring Board for the WHO’s Measles Aerosol Project. Professor Santos is past President of the Mexican and Pan-American Infectious Diseases

Societies, a Fellow of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and a member of the advisory group of Pediatric Global Research Priorities (PGRP) of the American Academy of Pediatrics. He has authored or co-authored 270 peer-reviewed publications. Figure options Download full-size image Download as PowerPoint slide Lawrence R Stanberry, MD, PhD: Lawrence Stanberry is the Reuben S Carpentier Professor and Chairman of the Department of Pediatrics at the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University, USA, and Pediatrician-in-Chief of the New York Presbyterian Morgan Stanley Children’s Hospital, USA. Professor Stanberry is an internationally recognised authority on vaccine development and viral diseases. He has served on numerous advisory and review panels including Chair of the Vaccine Study Section and the Pediatrics Review Panel at the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

It is thought that one role of GCs is to filter PLX4032 the quantity of information conveyed to the cerebellum by MFs before passing it on to PCs and inhibitory interneurons (Arenz et al., 2009). This role is favored by a relatively low input resistance of the GCs, which dampens their excitability so that closely-timed inputs from one or more MFs are usually necessary to evoke GC firing (Cathala et al., 2003, D’Angelo et al., 1995 and Hamann et al., 2002). Our finding that GCs in Ts65Dn mice are more excitable predicts weaker

sparsification of MF signals (Hamann et al., 2002), as activation of fewer MF inputs would be needed to evoke GC firing. In addition, the increased amplitude

and speeding of GC APs that we have observed may subtly modify the characteristics of glutamate release at downstream synapses between GC axons (parallel fibers) and PCs. These predictions need to be investigated experimentally, as changes in other properties, such as the probability of glutamate release from MFs and the amplitude and kinetics of excitatory postsynaptic Carfilzomib ic50 currents (EPSCs), may mitigate the impact of enhanced GC excitability on MF–GC information transfer. A detailed study of synaptic transmission in the CA3 area of cultured or acute hippocampal slices of, respectively, P5 and P13–16 Ts65Dn mice revealed complex changes in excitatory and inhibitory Progesterone synaptic transmission (Hanson et al., 2007). These included an increase in the number of excitatory synapses between CA3 pyramidal neurons and a decrease in the percentage of these synapses that was silent, a reduction in the amplitude of EPSCs at the active synapses, a diminished number of excitatory MF inputs and a reduction in inhibitory input from interneurons. The impact of the changes in excitability and AP waveform that we

have observed in Ts65Dn GCs on cerebellar function in humans with DS is unclear. If such changes accompany the decrease in GC number that occurs in all people with DS, they may result in altered GC signaling to downstream PCs that plays a part in the motor dysfunction displayed by most individuals with DS. Alternatively, such changes may compensate for the loss of GCs and minimize the degree of motor deficit that would otherwise occur. Different studies report either the presence (Costa et al., 1999 and Turner et al., 2001) or absence (Baxter et al., 2000, Escorihuela et al., 1995, Hyde et al., 2001 and Klein et al., 1996) of motor impairment inTs65Dn mice, making it difficult to ascribe roles for changes in GC number or electrophysiology to cerebellar dysfunction.

“
“Overfishing and overcapacity are costing the world’s fishery sector dearly, reducing resource rent—the surplus after fishing costs have been subtracted from revenue—by

Caspase inhibition an estimated US$50 billion a year according to two recent studies based on different methodologies [1] and [2]. Meanwhile, the gap between global revenue and costs narrows [1], with global revenue from marine fisheries at approximately US$95 billion [3], [4], [5] and [6] and the total variable cost of fishing estimated at US$92 billion (both in real 2005 dollars) [7]. Excess subsidies, by one estimate topping US$27 billion per year currently [8], largely fuel this cycle of dysfunction. Against this backdrop, the human consumption of fish has been rising, up 9% from 2002 to 2006 alone [9]. To support this, overall fish production from both capture fisheries and aquaculture continues to climb, reaching a level in 2006 more than seven times that recorded for 1950 [9]. The phenomenal growth of aquaculture is responsible

for the recent growth, selleck kinase inhibitor and nearly half of the world’s food fish supply is farmed at present [9]. But just as the overall rise in fish production hides the stagnation in catches from the world’s capture fisheries over the past two decades [6] and [9], global catch trends mask successive declines in regional stocks [10] and the geographic spread of overfishing in time [11] and [12]. Indeed, the roughly fivefold increase in marine fishery catches from 1950 to the late 1980s when catches peaked was facilitated by the expansion into and exploitation GBA3 of new fishing areas, from the North Atlantic and Western Pacific coastlines southward and into the high seas [12]. Defining thresholds of unsustainable fishing across the diverse marine ecosystems and fisheries of the world is an uncertain task and a matter of lively debate (e.g., [13] and [14]). In the absence of scientific stock assessments for all commercial species, studies have evaluated overfishing at a global scale by extrapolating

from available stock assessments and research surveys [9], [15] and [16]; using catch trends as an indicator of stock biomass levels [17]; combining catch data with primary productivity levels [12] and [18] or empirical stock-assessment based relationships [19]; or some combination of these methods [20]. Despite ongoing controversy regarding the interpretation of data sources, consensus is emerging; according to several recent assessments, up to one-third of global fishery stocks are now overexploited or collapsed [9], [11], [15], [16], [19] and [21]. These assessments document the geographic spread and intensification of overfishing from the 1950s to the 1990s, with the proportion of depleted stocks stable since the 1990s in some analyses [9] and [21] and increasing at different rates in others [17], [19] and [20].

7B. The DAPT in vitro X axis of this figure should have read: negative, flu, HIV. The figure has been correctly reproduced below: “
“Peripheral

blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) are important for the development of immune based therapies and clinical vaccine studies. An increasing number of investigations focus on diseases affecting cellular immunity, including HIV (Torresi et al., 2004 and Mlotshwa et al., 2010), tuberculosis (Sester et al., 2010) and cancer (Gilboa, 2004), using PBMC for assay readout. Changes in the antigen-specific T-cell response indicate the efficiency of a new test vaccine as it affects the initiation of antibody synthesis. However, the time slot for reliable results after PBMC isolation is quite narrow (Bull et al., 2007). This makes

comparison of results difficult between laboratories and, following Luyet and Hodapp, 1938, new cryopreservation methods have been continuously developed. At temperatures below − 130 °C, metabolic activity is significantly reduced and cells can theoretically be kept for long periods without effects on properties and function (Hunt, 2007). Effective and reproducible cryopreservation protocols for PBMC enable the setup of large sample repositories, allowing retrospective monitoring in pathogenesis studies and inter-laboratory controls of assay outcomes. Today, most active phase II/III vaccine studies already bank cells from all participants to allow repeated analysis of the immunological

response at different points of time. Suboptimal cryopreservation results in a significant decrease of cell viability and number, and may also cause alterations of the cellular phenotype learn more and a reduction of the immunogenic response to specific antigens (Costantini et al., 2003). Therefore, the use of cryopreserved PBMC in functional assays has to be validated and cryopreservation protocols have to be adapted to guarantee reliable and reproducible results. A wide range of studies have already been performed, Thiamine-diphosphate kinase analyzing the effects of freezing and thawing on PBMC. Most results showed only minimal effects on the viability of cells (Birkeland, 1980, Sobota et al., 1997 and Hayes et al., 2002), with a clear correlation of viability and T-cell function in lymphocyte assays (Reimann et al., 2000 and Weinberg et al., 2000). However, preservation of antigen-specific T-cell response is under permanent critical discussion. Some studies found no significant difference between fresh and frozen cell responses to recall antigens (Kreher et al., 2003, Maecker et al., 2005 and Disis et al., 2006), whereas others reported an increase in frozen samples (Weinberg et al., 1998) or reduced function in lymphocyte assays against HIV p24 and CMV antigens, as well as against mitogens (Costantini et al., 2003, Miniscalco et al., 2003 and Owen et al., 2007) after cryopreservation. Further studies on antigen-specific T-cell response are necessary to evaluate these results.

, 2004 and Rübe et al., 2010). In the study by Rübe et al. (2010), it took several hours for γ-H2AX foci to disappear in lung tissue of ATM+/+ wild-type mice after single-dose irradiation with 2 Gy. Thus, the γ-H2AX signal exhibits considerably longer persistence in the nucleus than the PAR signal with the possibility of DNA damage signal accumulation and more precise damage differentiation. Interestingly, γ-H2AX was the only marker in the present study which significantly correlated with cell death markers in BAL and lung wet weight. In this selleck inhibitor context, it has to be kept in mind that γ-H2AX may also be involved in apoptosis and γ-H2AX

foci may also occur as repair intermediates and during replication. It would thus be interesting to compare these data with apoptosis and proliferation data of the same lung tissue paraffin blocks. In contrast

to PAR, γ-H2AX correlated with the inflammation score only when individual animal data were used. Probably, it is less likely that a low level of inflammation induced by particle treatment results in damage-dependent γ-H2AX foci formation than in DNA single-strand breaks. All in all, γ-H2AX was demonstrated to be a reliably detectable and sensitive genotoxicity marker. 8-OH-dG is a pre-mutagenic selleck base modification directly induced by oxidative DNA insults. The expression pattern of 8-OH-dG in the particle-treated animals was also somehow comparable to the pattern of tumor incidence. In addition, numbers of 8-OHdG-positive nuclei correlated very well with the inflammation score, both when comparing data Dolutegravir research buy from individual animals and group means. Cell death parameters measured in BAL and lung wet weight did not significantly correlate with levels of 8-OHdG-positive nuclei. In summary, 8-OH-dG seems to be a suitable marker for oxidative DNA damage in lung tissue due to particle exposure and like PAR indicates MNP-induced inflammation

with ongoing ROS release. Like γ-H2AX, 8-OH-dG also seems to exhibit some prognostic value concerning particle-dependent tumor development. However, as Totsuka et al. (2009) demonstrated occurrence of other oxidative guanine modifications than 8-OH-dG after Printex® 90 administration in gpt delta-transgenic mice, it has to be kept in mind that 8-OH-dG is only one well characterized and easily detectable representative of a wide panel of oxidative lesions, and oxidative DNA damage might be underestimated when using solely 8-OH-dG as oxidative DNA damage marker. In the present study, the inducible repair protein OGG1 proved to be a more complex genotoxicity marker than PAR, γ-H2AX, and 8-OH-dG. Expression of OGG1 was noted in both nucleus and cytoplasm. The occurrence of OGG1-positive cytoplasm, which showed a granular pattern, may represent induction of OGG1 expression in the mitochondrial compartment and may thus point to compartment-related particle-induced oxidative stress.

These examples already reflect the awareness of and the interest in soil organisms as functional components Alpelisib in the soil system. Otto Graff published the proceedings, which compiled 60 presentations of the colloquium, together with John Satchell as co-editor (Graff and Satchell 1967). Otto Graff had countless national and international contacts, especially with colleagues from Eastern Europe and The Netherlands, France, Sweden, Great Britain, Japan, USA, South Africa, Persia and Kuwait. In the early seventies, he was on sabbatical leave in Kuwait as a FAO-mandated consultant. He was assigned to investigate the soil biological suitability of municipal waste water for vegetable

production. The recycling of (bio-) waste material and vermicomposting were other important subjects in Otto Graff’s scientific work long before cascade use of biomass and resource Quizartinib efficiency became modern concepts for agriculture. International scientific reputation is only one side, which distinguishes Otto Graff’s life. Otto Graff was also a refined humanist with a keen interest in history; he wrote in Greek and Latin. Besides, many colleagues and young scientists appreciated his and his loveable wife’s cordial hospitality in their cultivated home. Usually after taking a hearty

breakfast or home-made cake lively discussions started with Otto Graff. His enthusiastic pleas for field research are unforgettable. In the basement of their home, Otto Graff kept a legendary stock of a huge amount of scientific literature. A lot of those books and papers were not available in most libraries. It was always something very particular

to benefit from this treasure of knowledge. After going into retirement in 1980, he still continued with studying earthworm ecology. Many of his activities now served to disseminate his knowledge and experience to a broader public like farmers and gardeners. Cyclooxygenase (COX) His encyclopaedia on earthworms (Graff 1983b) is definitely a milestone in this context; besides, he wrote two books on use of organic fertilizer. At all times, he was a generous mentor and paternal friend with impressive sagacity, genuine modesty and a wonderful humour, who inspired generations of young scientists in soil biology and especially in earthworm ecology. “
“Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 2015, 2:1–7 This review comes from a themed issue on Behavioral genetics 2015 Edited by William Davies and Laramie Duncan http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.06.001 2352-1546/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Behaviors are the ultimate expression of the nervous system and the quintessential manifestations of living organisms. From a genetics perspective, behaviors are quantitative phenotypes, that is, traits that vary among individuals and arise from multiple interacting and segregating genes that are modulated by the organism’s developmental history and its environment [1].

It is very important at this age because appropriate intestinal microbiocenosis formation can influence children’s health in the future. Parents of 195 infants agreed to participate in the second (follow-up) MEK inhibitor stage of the study. 166 children (51 in the breastfeeding group, 62 in the scGOS/lcFOS group and 53 in the formula without oligosaccharides

group) completed the 18 months follow-up period (Fig. 1). Babies were breastfed or received predefined formula for 9.73 ± 3.54; 8.19 ± 3.45 and 8.22 ± 2.99 months accordingly by groups (p > 0.05). We did not find significant differences between the groups in terms of age at introduction of cow’s milk and the first solid foods ( Table II). At the age of 18 months, we analyzed the incidence of gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI). Infants fed with breast milk and with the formula supplemented with scGOS/lcFOS had similar

morbidity (0.27 ± 0.07 vs. 0.28 ± 0.05 episodes/child/18 months of gastrointestinal infections and 2.82 ± 0.96 vs. 2.81 ± 0.51 episodes/child/18 months of URTI accordingly; p > 0.05). At the same time the incidence of gastrointestinal and URT infections in the second group was significantly lower than in infants fed with the formula without scGOS/lcFOS (0.28 ± 0.05 vs. 0.78 ± 0.12 episodes/child/18 months and 2.81 ± 0.51 vs. 5.78 ± 0.97 episodes/child/18 months accordingly; p < 0.001) ( Fig. 5). It was found that infants fed with breast milk and supplemented formula had significantly less allergic reactions to food products PCI-32765 in vitro compared to the babies from the third group (3.92% and 4.84% vs. 16.98% accordingly; p < 0.05). Allergic reactions to cow's milk protein were observed significantly second rarer in children who were breastfed or received supplemented formula in comparison with the third group (1.96% and 3.23% vs. 15.09% accordingly; p < 0.01). The incidence of atopic dermatitis (AD), most commonly seen in allergic infants, was also the highest in babies fed with the standard formula without oligosaccharides (16.98% vs. 3.92% and 4.84% accordingly in the first and the second

groups; p < 0.05). There was a similar situation with the respiratory system allergic symptoms such as recurrent wheezing and with gastro-intestinal symptoms of food allergy (Table III). In summary our data suggest that feeding with infant formula supplemented of with the prebiotic oligosaccharide mixture (scGOS/lcFOS) during the first 6 months can protect infants and toddlers from infections and allergic reactions during the first 18 months of life producing the effect similar to the effect of breast milk. This study showed that GOS/FOS supplementation influenced intestinal microbiota and could positively modulate infant’s immune system development and reduce some allergic and infectious morbidity in infants and toddlers aged up to 18 months.